Statement of Chairman Robert Pitofsky and Commissioner Janet D. Steiger⁽¹⁾

in the Matter of

Cadence Design Systems, Inc./ Cooper & Chyan Technology, Inc.

Docket No. C-3761

The consent agreement negotiated in this matter, which the Commission has issued today, eases competitive concerns raised by Cadence Design Systems, Inc.'s ("Cadence") acquisition of Cooper & Chyan Technology, Inc. ("CCT").

The Commission's complaint alleges that Cadence is the dominant supplier of complete software "layout environments" for the physical design of integrated circuits, or "chips," the postage-stamp sized electronic components used in devices as diverse as personal computers and kitchen appliances. CCT sells a software tool, called a "router," that works within a layout environment and allows users to plot the connections among the millions of components within an integrated circuit. The complaint alleges that CCT is the only firm to have developed a "constraint-driven, shape-based" router, state-of-the-art technology that is expected to solve the next generation of problems that will face integrated circuit producers designing ever more powerful chips.

The Commission's complaint alleges a well-established vertical theory of competitive harm, laid out in the 1984 Merger Guidelines.⁽²⁾ The Guidelines explain that a vertical merger can produce horizontal anticompetitive effects by making competitive entry less likely if (1) as a result of the merger, there is a need for simultaneous entry into two or more markets and (2) such simultaneous entry would make entry into the single market less likely to occur.⁽³⁾ While the dissenting Commissioners may take issue in this case with the "dual-level entry" theory of vertical mergers that the 1984 Guidelines articulate, the available evidence suggests that the Cadence/CCT merger, which combines Cadence's dominant position in integrated circuit layout environments with CCT's current monopolistic position in constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routers, presents a straightforward case of anticompetitive effects caused by vertical integration. We believe that this type of competitive harm merits our attention.⁽⁴⁾

When considering the effects of mergers in dynamic, innovative high-tech markets, such as those present here, it is particularly important to investigate whether such mergers will create barriers to entry. New entrants often bring innovation to the market, and the threat of entry leads incumbents to innovate. Therefore, we must be vigilant to preserve opportunities for entry.

As the attached Analysis to Aid Public Comment explains, unless a would-be supplier of routing tools had the ability to develop an interface to the Cadence integrated circuit layout environment, it would not be able to market its routing product effectively to the vast majority of potential customers which use the Cadence layout environment.⁽⁵⁾ Without an expectation that it could design software compatible with Cadence's installed base, a would-be entrant might well decide not to compete.⁽⁶⁾

After the Cadence/CCT merger, Cadence would have had an incentive to impede attempts by companies developing routing technology competitive with CCT's constraint-driven, shape-based router technology, IC Craftsman, to gain access to the Cadence integrated circuit layout environment. Following the merger, successful entry into the routing tool market is more likely to require simultaneous entry into the market for integrated circuit layout environments. Without a consent order that mandates access to Cadence's layout environment, and thus lowers the barriers to entry in the market, a combined Cadence/CCT will face less competitive pressure to innovate or to price aggressively. Thus, competition would likely be reduced as a result of the acquisition.

The remedy in this matter preserves opportunities for new entrants with integrated circuit routers competitive with IC Craftsman by allowing them to interface with Cadence's layout environments on the same terms as developers of complementary design tools.⁽⁷⁾ Specifically, the order requires Cadence to allow independent commercial router developers to build interfaces between their design tools and the Cadence layout environment through Cadence's "Connections Program." The Connections Program is in place now and has more than one hundred participants who have all entered a standard form contract with Cadence.

The separate statements by Commissioners Azcuenaga and Starek question this enforcement action. We respectfully disagree.

First, Commissioner Azcuenaga argues that the Commission should have brought an action based upon a horizontal theory of competitive harm. We certainly agree that horizontal competitive concerns deserve our close attention and recognize that horizontal remedies often cure vertical problems. If we had credible support for the theory that the merger would combine actual or potential horizontal competitors and would substantially lessen competition in an integrated circuit routing market or an innovation market for integrated circuit routers, we would not hesitate to advance that case. But after a thorough investigation by Commission staff, we did not find sufficient evidence to conclude that, absent the acquisition, Cadence would have been able to enter the market for constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routers successfully in the foreseeable future. On the contrary, the staff investigation indicated that Cadence's efforts to develop such technology had failed, and therefore there is not sufficient evidence to establish that entry would have occurred but for the acquisition.⁽⁸⁾

The dissenting statements fail to give full weight to all the incentives at work in the vertical case. It is true that Cadence would be motivated by the entry of new, promising routing technology to allow an interface to its layout environment to sell more of its complementary products. And absent the merger, that would be its only incentive. But with the merger, Cadence clearly also has an incentive to prevent loss of sales in its competing products. And while these two incentives may compete as a theoretical matter, the evidence in this case indicated that Cadence has acted historically according to the latter incentive. There is some reason to believe that Cadence in the past has thwarted attempts by firms offering potentially competitive technology to develop interfaces to its layout environment (including at one point, CCT). Now that it has a satisfactory router to offer its customers, there is no reason to think that absent the consent order, Cadence would treat developers of routers that would compete with IC Craftsman any differently than it once treated CCT.

Commissioner Azcuenaga also suggests that the consent order is unnecessary because a company developing a router to compete with IC Craftsman could proceed, as CCT did, without an interface to Cadence's design layout environment. The evidence showed, however, that CCT's management thought that ensuring compatibility with Cadence's layout environment was critical and that marketing without that compatibility, which it had done, was not sufficient.⁽⁹⁾ It took the extreme measure of inducing a third party to write software for CCT to interface IC Craftsman with the Cadence layout environment without Cadence's knowledge. Moreover, despite CCT's success in developing a routing program, its sales of IC Craftsman were quite modest before it obtained an authorized interface with the Cadence environment.⁽¹⁰⁾

Commissioner Azcuenaga is further concerned that mandating access to the Connections Program for developers of routing software on terms as favorable as for other Connections participants might have unintended consequences. In particular, she is concerned that the order may prompt Cadence to charge higher prices to all Connections partners. But the Connections Program is an existing program with over one hundred members, and Cadence would have significant logistical difficulties, and would risk injuring its reputation, if it suddenly altered the terms of the program. Also, Cadence has good reasons for having so many Connections partners--they offer Cadence customers valuable tools, most of which do not compete with Cadence products. It seems unlikely that Cadence would be motivated to make the Connections Program less appealing to those partners.

Both Commissioners Azcuenaga and Starek suggest that the remedy may be difficult to enforce. Any time this Commission enters an order, it takes upon itself the burden of enforcing the order, which requires use of our scarce resources. However, we think the order, which simply requires Cadence to allow competitors and potential competitors developing routing technology to participate in independent software interface programs on terms no less favorable than the terms applicable to any other participants in such programs, is a workable approach.⁽¹¹⁾ Connections partners all sign the same standard-form contract and there has been a consistent pattern of conduct with respect to the program to use as a baseline for future comparisons. Moreover, the Commission has had experience with such non-discrimination provisions, and can rely on respondent's compliance reports required under the order as well as complaints from independent software developers to ensure compliance with the consent order. We think the dissenting Commissioners' scenarios about intractable compliance issues are unfounded.

In sum, we believe that the consent order will preserve competition in the market for cutting-edge router technology by reducing barriers to entry.

Attachment to Statement of Chairman Pitofsky and Commissioner Steiger

ANALYSIS OF PROPOSED CONSENT ORDER
TO AID PUBLIC COMMENT

The Federal Trade Commission ("Commission") has accepted, subject to final approval, an Agreement Containing Consent Order ("Agreement") from Cadence Design Systems, Inc. ("Proposed Respondent"). The proposed Order is designed to remedy anticompetitive effects stemming from Cadence's proposed acquisition of Cooper & Chyan Technology ("CCT"). On October 28, 1996, Cadence and CCT entered into an Agreement and Plan of Merger and Reorganization whereby Cadence will acquire 100 percent of the issued and outstanding shares of CCT voting securities in exchange for shares of Cadence voting securities valued at more than $400 million (the "Proposed Merger").

The Commission has reason to believe that the Proposed Merger may substantially lessen competition in violation of Section 7 of the Clayton Act, as amended, 15 U.S.C. § 18, and Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act, as amended, 15 U.S.C. § 45, unless an effective remedy eliminates likely anticompetitive effects. The Agreement Containing Consent Order would, if finally accepted by the Commission, settle charges that Cadence's acquisition of CCT may substantially lessen competition or tend to create a monopoly in the research, development, and sale of constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools.

The proposed Order has been placed on the public record for sixty (60) days. The Commission invites the submission of comments by interested persons, and comments received during this period will become part of the public record. After sixty (60) days, the Commission will again review the Agreement, as well as any comments received, and will decide whether it should withdraw from the Agreement or make final the Agreement's proposed Order.

The Proposed Complaint

According to the Commission's proposed complaint, Cadence is a company that sells various electronic design automation products and services, including integrated circuit layout environments. An integrated circuit (more commonly known as a microchip) is a complex electronic circuit that consists of as many as five million or more miniature electronic components on a piece of semiconductor material smaller than a postage stamp. Integrated circuit design consists of two distinct phases, logical design and physical design. Integrated circuit layout environments, which are used during the physical design phase, are software infrastructures within which integrated circuit designers access integrated circuit layout tools. Approximately $70 million of Cadence's annual worldwide sales of approximately $741 million are attributable to sales of integrated circuit layout environments.

The proposed complaint further alleges that CCT is a company that sells integrated circuit routing tools and related services, which account for approximately $13 million of CCT's annual worldwide sales of approximately $37.6 million. An integrated circuit routing tool, which is a type of integrated circuit layout tool, is software used to automate the determination of the connections between electronic components within an integrated circuit.

According to the Commission's proposed complaint, a relevant line of commerce within which to analyze the competitive effects of the Proposed Merger is the market for the research, development, and sale of constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools. As integrated circuit designs have become smaller, denser, and faster, the routing of the interconnections between components has become an increasingly important phase of the integrated circuit design process. Routing issues are critical at deep submicron scales of integrated circuit design, which are scales of design smaller than .35 micron (a micron is a millionth of an inch). The current state-of-the-art design scale is .35 micron, but in the future, integrated circuit designs will shrink to .25 micron and then .18 micron design scales. At deep submicron scales of integrated circuit design, routing is complicated by "cross talk" and other types of electrical interference, timing concerns, design density, and other problems. A constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool is the only kind of routing tool that can correctly accommodate these unique deep submicron integrated circuit routing issues.

The proposed complaint further alleges that there are no acceptable substitutes for constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools. Routing tools based on other technology cannot accommodate the unique deep submicron integrated circuit routing issues described above and thus cannot route deep submicron integrated circuit designs accurately. Routing inaccuracies create serious performance problems, and correcting these problems causes significant design delays. Nor is it commercially feasible for integrated circuit design engineers to route integrated circuit designs without automation (i.e., by "pointing and clicking" between each individual component and each other component to which it must be connected, then going back and correcting any interference or other problems that arise as the routing progresses). Given the sheer complexity and density of deep submicron integrated circuit designs, as well as the intense time-to-market pressures faced by semiconductor companies in today's fast-paced electronics industry, hand routing is not an alternative for the timely and accurate design of integrated circuits.

The proposed complaint further alleges that CCT is currently the only firm with a commercially viable constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool, although at least one other firm is in the process of developing a constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool that would compete with CCT's product. The complaint further alleges that Cadence is the dominant supplier of integrated circuit layout environments. The competitive significance of Avant! Corporation, Cadence's leading competitor in the supply of integrated circuit layout environments, is limited by the fact that Avant! has been charged criminally with conspiracy and theft of trade secrets from Cadence. Several top Avant! executives have been charged criminally as well.

The Commission's proposed complaint further alleges that there are high barriers to entry in the market for constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools, which are technologically complex and difficult to develop. De novo entry takes approximately two to three and a half years for a company that already possesses certain underlying core technology that can be used to develop a constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit router (for example, shape-based routing technology for printed circuit boards). Entry is likely to take even longer for a company that does not already possess such technology.

According to the Commission's proposed complaint, integrated circuit designers achieve the necessary compatibility between integrated circuit layout tools by selecting tools that have interfaces to a common integrated circuit layout environment. As a result, a constraint-driven, shape-based routing tool that lacks an interface into a Cadence integrated circuit layout environment is less likely to be selected by integrated circuit designers than a constraint-driven, shape-based routing tool that possesses such an interface. Similarly, an integrated circuit layout environment is not likely to be selected by integrated circuit designers unless a full set of compatible integrated circuit design tools is available.

The proposed complaint further alleges that it is in Cadence's interest to make available to users of Cadence integrated circuit layout environments a complete a set of integrated circuit design tools, because to do so makes a Cadence integrated circuit layout environment more valuable to customers. Historically, Cadence has provided access to its integrated circuit layout environments to suppliers of complementary integrated circuit layout tools that Cadence does not supply. Cadence does not, however, have incentives to provide access to its integrated circuit layout environments to suppliers of integrated circuit layout tools that compete with Cadence products. Cadence historically has been reluctant to provide access to its integrated circuit layout environments to suppliers of competing integrated circuit layout tools.

According to the Commission's proposed complaint, prior to the Proposed Merger, Cadence did not have a commercially viable, constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool. As a result of the Proposed Merger, Cadence will own the only currently available commercially viable constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit router. Thus, as a result of the Proposed Merger, Cadence will become less likely to permit potential suppliers of competing constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools to obtain access to Cadence integrated circuit layout environments.

The Commission's proposed complaint alleges that, absent access to Cadence integrated circuit layout environments, developers will be less likely to gain successful entry into the market for constraint-driven, shape-based routing tools. The proposed complaint further alleges that the Proposed Merger will make it more likely that successful entry into the constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool market would require simultaneous entry into the market for integrated circuit layout environments. This need for dual-level entry will further decrease the likelihood of entry into the market for constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools.

The Commission's proposed complaint alleges that the Proposed Merger may substantially lessen competition or tend to create a monopoly in the market for constraint-driven, shape-based routing tools, which, among other things, may lead to higher prices, reduced services, and less innovation.

The Proposed Order

The proposed Order would remedy the alleged violations by eliminating a significant impediment to entry in the market for integrated circuit routing tools. The proposed Order would require that Cadence permit developers of commercial integrated circuit routing tools to participate in the Cadence Connections Program™, any successor program thereto, or other licensing programs, promotional programs or other arrangements (collectively, "Independent Software Interface Programs") which enable independent software developers to develop and sell interfaces to Cadence integrated circuit layout tools and Cadence integrated circuit layout environments.

The proposed Order would require that Cadence allow independent developers of commercial integrated circuit routing tools to participate in Cadence's Independent Software Interface Programs on terms no less favorable than the terms applicable to other participants. Cadence currently has over 100 partners in its Independent Software Interface Programs.

The purpose of these requirements is to ensure that Cadence's acquisition of CCT's constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool does not create incentives for Cadence to prevent competing suppliers of constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools from participating in Cadence's Independent Software Interface Programs; to prevent a need for dual-level entry in the markets for constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools and integrated circuit layout environments; to ensure that independent software developers will continue to invest the resources necessary to develop and sell constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tools that would compete with CCT's constraint-driven, shape-based integrated circuit routing tool; and to remedy the lessening of competition as alleged in the Commission's complaint.

In addition, the proposed Order would prohibit Cadence from acquiring certain interests in any other concern which, within the year preceding such acquisition, engaged in the development or sale of integrated circuit routing tools in the United States, and also would prohibit Cadence from acquiring any assets used or previously used (and still suitable for use) in the development or sale of integrated circuit routing tools in the United States, without prior notice to the Commission, for a period of ten (10) years. Absent this prior notice requirement, Cadence might be able to undermine the purposes of the proposed Order by acquiring a developer of integrated circuit routing tools without the Commission's knowledge, where such acquisition would not be subject to the reporting requirements of the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976.

Cadence and the Commission also have entered into an Interim Agreement whereby Cadence has agreed to be bound by the terms of the proposed Order, pending and until the Commission's issuance of the proposed Order.

The purpose of this analysis is to facilitate public comment on the proposed Order. This analysis is not intended to constitute an official interpretation of the Agreement or the proposed Order or in any way to modify the terms of the Agreement or the proposed Order.

Endnotes:

1. Commissioner Varney participated in this matter and joined Chairman Pitofsky and Commissioner Steiger in an earlier version of this statement, which was issued when the matter was accepted by the Commission for public comment. Commissioner Varney, however, left the Commission before this statement was finalized.

2. See U.S. Department of Justice Merger Guidelines, 4 Trade Reg. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 13,103 (June 14, 1984) (hereinafter "1984 Merger Guidelines"). When the agencies issued the 1992 Horizontal Merger Guidelines, U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission Horizontal Merger Guidelines, 4 Trade Reg. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 13,104 (April 7, 1992), they explained that "[s]pecific guidance on non-horizontal mergers is provided in . . . [the] 1984 Merger Guidelines." U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission Statement Accompanying Release of Revised Merger Guidelines, 4 Trade Reg. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 13,104 (April 2, 1992). See generally Herbert Hovenkamp, Federal Antitrust Policy §§  9.4, 9.5 (1994) (suggesting that vertical mergers may create barriers to entry when one of the parties is a monopolist or near-monopolist).

3. See 1984 Merger Guidelines § 4.21.

4. Contrary to Commissioner Starek's assertions that enforcement action here, in the context of a merger, leads logically to enforcement action against internal vertical expansion, see Dissenting Statement of Commissioner Roscoe B. Starek III at n.8 & accompanying text, such unilateral action has been known to present a completely different set of questions under the antitrust laws for more than one hundred years.

5. Not only is Cadence the dominant layout environment, but its competitors are in a state of disarray. For example, Cadence's most significant competitor, Avant! Corporation, and several of its top executives have recently been charged with theft of trade secrets from Cadence.

6. CCT decided that it was so important to gain access to Cadence's layout environment that when Cadence refused to allow the IC Craftsman product (CCT's constraint-driven, shape-based router technology) to interface with the Cadence layout program through the "Connections" Program, CCT induced a third party that was a Connections partner to write an interface to the Connections Program for IC Craftsman without Cadence's knowledge. Cadence thereafter sought to impede CCT's attempts to gain access to the Cadence integrated circuit layout environment by suing CCT.

7. At the same time, the order preserves any efficiencies of vertical integration resulting from the merger, which may benefit customers.

8. We agree with Commissioner Azcuenaga that claims that a technology has failed made after parties agree to a transaction must be discounted because the incentive to justify the transaction are strong. Rather than rely on such evidence in reaching our conclusion that the technology had failed, we rely upon confidential information from potential customers that tested Cadence's products under development.

9. Interfacing with another firm's design layout environment is also not a feasible alternative because of Cadence's dominant position in the market. Without hope of marketing to the vast majority of customers, developers of an alternative router have minimal incentives to compete. In addition, the competitive significance of Cadence's few competitors is questionable.

10. CCT obtained permission to interface with the Cadence layout environment in the fall of 1996, and CCT's sales of IC Craftsman for all of 1996 were only $13 million. "Me too" products or products offering incremental innovation rather than the revolutionary breakthrough of IC Craftsman would have an even more difficult time entering.

11. The language of the consent order is clear in requiring that terms for routing companies be no less favorable than for any other participant in the Connections Program. Thus, we do not understand Commissioner Starek's conclusion that the order could be interpreted to require routing companies to pay a "fee no higher than the highest fee." And as his own dissent acknowledges, if the order could be interpreted to allow Cadence to terminate router developers from the Connections Program after thirty days, the order would be meaningless.